Download Free Project Altered Beast Isotope
From Roman gladiatorial combat to Egyptian animal mummies, the capture and manipulation of carnivores was instrumental in helping to shape social hierarchies throughout the ancient world. This paper investigates the historical inflection point when humans began to control animals not only as alimental resources but as ritual symbols and social actors in the New World.
At Teotihuacan (A.D. 1–550), one of the largest pre-Hispanic cities, animal remains were integral components of ritual caches expressing state ideology and militarism during the construction of the Moon and the Sun Pyramids. The caches contain the remains of nearly 200 carnivorous animals, human sacrificial victims and other symbolic artifacts.
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This paper argues the presence of skeletal pathologies of infectious disease and injuries manifest on the carnivore remains show direct evidence of captivity. Stable isotope analysis (δ 13C and δ 15N) of bones and teeth confirms that some of these carnivores were consuming high levels of C 4 foods, likely reflecting a maize-based anthropocentric food chain. These results push back the antiquity of keeping captive carnivores for ritualistic purposes nearly 1000 years before the Spanish conquistadors described Moctezuma’s zoo at the Aztec capital. Mirroring these documents the results indicate a select group of carnivores at Teotihuacan may have been fed maize-eating omnivores, such as dogs and humans.
Unlike historical records, the present study provides the earliest and direct archaeological evidence for this practice in Mesoamerica. It also represents the first systematic isotopic exploration of a population of archaeological eagles (n = 24) and felids (n = 29). Materials and Methods Four dedicatory caches from the Moon Pyramid (assigned Entierros 2, 3, 5 and 6) and one in the Sun Pyramid (Ofrenda 2) were studied.
The former was explored as part of a seven year extensive excavation program by the Moon Pyramid Project directed by Saburo Sugiyama and Ruben Cabrera ,. Five burial/offering complexes, designated Entierros 2 through 6, were assigned to one of the seven construction episodes defined by the project ,. Of these, four caches contained animal remains. The latter monument was explored as part of the Program of Investigation and Consolidation at the Architectural Complex of the Sun Pyramid, Teotihuacan (Sun Pyramid Project) from 2005 to present by Alejandro Sarabia ,. Each offering was built in dedication to a new building phase; at the Moon Pyramid these caches were associated with Buildings 4 to 6, and the Sun Pyramid Ofrenda 2 was placed as a foundation to the construction of the main corpus of the monument. Zooarchaeology A total of 66 complete sacrificed animals and 127 bone artifacts (incomplete animal parts) were distributed throughout the five dedicatory caches analyzed.
The Moon Pyramid’s Entierro 6 in particular stands out as a singular context with not only the greatest abundance of animal remains (MNI = 75), but also containing the largest concentration of primary burials (MNI = 33). This represents a unique occurrence of mass animal sacrifice recorded in Mesoamerica during the Classic Period, directly linked to state monumentalism. Species distribution of zooarchaeological remains from the Moon Pyramid (Ent. 2, 6, 3 and 5) and Sun Pyramid (PPS OF2). Agents of the Teotihuacan state deliberately selected the most prominent carnivores of the sky (golden eagles), land (pumas, jaguars, and wolves) and liminal zones (rattlesnake) as the core emblems appropriate for state offerings. These beasts were considered to have held diverse sources of power, were revered as master guardian of animals, and were the ultimate symbol of power and rulership throughout Mesoamerica ,. While there is some degree of diversity among incomplete faunal artifacts, these taxa appear consistently among the complete animals utilized as sacrificial victims across burial contexts.
The repeated use of these apex predators in state rituals was mirrored by the rich iconographic repertoire in Teotihuacan mural paintings, which emphasized the same animals ,. Initial zooarchaeological research on collections from the Moon Pyramid hinted at the presence of an active animal management program within the city confines ,. Several animals had bone pathologies not usually found in wild carnivores. For example, among the 29 eagles examined, at least eight had a pathology indicating infection, injury, and/or stress that can be related to captive behavior.
Three of these individuals exhibit the same pathology on their inner legs (tarsometatasus bone), probably from being tethered. The restrictive device would have led to abrasion and sloughing, that ultimately resulted in the observed bone pathology. Most likely eagles were kept tethered to perches, similar to the way that modern Native American groups in Southwestern USA still raise eagles for their feathers and for use in sacrificial rites. A number of other pathologies were identified on eagle, puma and wolf skeletons, including broken limbs, bone thinning or osteoporosis on wing elements, abnormal bone fusion (e.g.
), and bone modification due to infectious disease. Stable Isotopes Within the Teotihuacan sample two-tailed t-tests indicated samples from complete skeletons had significantly higher δ 13C apatite (p. Descriptive statistics of the δ 13C apatite, δ 13C collagen, and δ 15N values for complete and incomplete samples (excludes all leporidae, which are rabbits and hares that were found as stomach contents).
There are clear inter-species differences in isotope distributions. Canids consistently have low to no incorporation of C 4 based resources, with the exception of two outliers: one complete and one prepared head of a wolf. Eagles, despite representing a mix of sacrificed raptors and prepared skeletons, demonstrate a homogenous diet reliant on C 4-based foodstuffs.
The isotopic signatures concur with the zooarchaeological evidence that eagles with complete skeletal representation can also exhibit extensive post-mortem manipulation of the corpse. For example, Element 2246, an eagle from Entierro 6 has pathologies on both tarsometarsus bones suggestive of captivity, as well as extensive cutmarks and perforations distributed throughout the body indicating it was a secondary burial despite complete skeletal representation.
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Isotopic data suggest that over half (59%) of its diet was based on C 4 resources. In some instances, skeletal integrity of the raptor was maintained, probably through taxidermy, placing perforations along the shoulder girdle and extremities. Since the number of eagles for Entierros 6 and 2 were likely predetermined due to its cosmological significance (related to the Mesoamerican calendric cycle), requiring 18 and 9 eagles respectively, eagles were most likely brought into the city confines as chicks in anticipation of their ritual slaughter.
Download Free Project Altered Beast Isotope 1
However, not all of them were able to be sacrificed alive, thus warranting the use of taxidermy and/or other means of retaining the body intact. Line drawing of puma devouring hearts. Unfortunately it is difficult to distinguish between humans and dogs based on isotopic ratios. Dogs have long established roots in Mesoamerican domestic life, being cohabitants of human settlements and eating trash including human feces, so much so that they have been used as proxies for human dietary regimes in areas where isotopic studies on human skeletal remains are not feasible.
Altered Beast 2
As one of the major domesticated animals in Mesoamerica that was also utilized as a staple protein source, the dog must be considered as a potential food source for the pumas with elevated nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios. Most likely, these two felids were fed a mixed diet of maize-raised lagomorphs supplemented with dog and/or human meat. It is important to emphasize that as bone collagen values reflect an average total diet at the rate in which bone remodels (in this case reflecting the young-adult puma’s lifetime average), this value does not reflect isolated feeding events. There is one wolf skeleton with a somewhat elevated δ 15N value (10.9‰) from the same dedicatory cache, suggesting a similar scenario.